The first sequence is initiated by the great psychohistorian, Hari Seldon, who, using almost mystical forms of mathematics, is able to accurately predict the downfall of the gargantuan human intergalactic Empire that spanned the universe and the millennia of barbarism that would follow. This future cannot be changed. However, the years of savagery could be shortened by the establishment of the Foundation, a propagation of science and arts that would maintain its civilizing force in the Periphery and gradually restore humankind to its former power.

Seldon, even after his death, is able to sustain his binding presence during the development of the Foundation, by appearing as a hologram every time that it faced a major crisis. According to his calculations, these crises have a very high probability of occurring, and with each successive crisis, the Foundation will be faced with fewer and fewer choices until it is left with a single choice. This choice, once made will irrevocably determine the future of humanity.

Successive characters led the Foundation through short spans of turbulent times, making changes that heavily influenced its future. Salvor Hardin, the young mayor of Terminus, the planet to which the Foundation had been exiled by the already crumbling Empire a hundred years before, was able to wrest the ultimate rule of authority from the Board of Encyclopedists. From this time onward, the government of Terminus held the highest power over its domestic and foreign policies; the latter under Hardin concentrated on the cultivation of peace, appeasement and trade with the four neighbouring Kingdoms. The Board, composed of brilliant scientists but poor administrators, retreated to perform its original task of compiling the Encyclopedia Galactica.

He led the Foundation through two major crises - each involving a clash of sovereignty between Terminus and one of the Four Kingdoms. As the Foundation was the only State that was still able to produce hi-tech goods and atomic power, it traded these goods to the Kingdoms with a price - that of control through the power of religion. A priesthood, directly ordered by the Foundation, was established. By imbuing these scientific goods with mystical qualities and the priests being in command of these qualities meant that they could wield enormous power over the masses of the Kingdoms, thereby subjecting even their rulers under the Foundation's indirect control.

This form of religious embodiment of science and technology served effectively to ensure Foundation's rule in the Periphery for the next hundred years or so. With the Foundation's economic power came vast riches. By that time, there arose a new rank of Traders who began to build their own commercial empires. Also by that time, hosts of provinces and nations had separated from the Four Kingdoms, their number swelled by splinter States that had broken away from other sovereignties further inward from the Periphery. Many of these were not so easily cowed by the relatively more advanced Foundation, they themselves being on the verge of becoming atomic powers. In this tense atmosphere of unstable political alignments and mutual distrust, was spawned the third crisis.

Threatened by hostile forces on all sides soon being able to acquire atomics and tip the balance of power against the Foundation, it took all the quick cunning of the first Merchant Prince, Hober Mallow, to secure a contract with an influential Commodore. Through this dealing, the Commodore inadvertently placed control of his system's energy sources into Mallow's hands which proved humiliatingly catastrophic when he later declared war on the Foundation. Mallow also had to work strategically in a Terminus government full of political enemies to finally gain the prize of mayorship.

The book ends with him intending to establish a plutocracy of Traders and Merchant Princes, as he said - “Power through money” would be the new controlling influence over the Periphery, as religion had become a dead force. The conclusion promises many more crises to come with similarly insightful and inspired leaders who would heroically defeat all odds to secure success for the Foundation.

Similarities Between Foundation, Star Wars and Dune

Whew, now that summary was quite long! The first thing I'd like to comment on are the similarities between this story and several others in the scifi genre, such as Star Wars, the movie trilogy and Dune. Many similar elements run throughout all of these, so much so that they represent futuristic archetypes, modeled to fit into the scifi tradition. In such a way, a person may think about a galactic fantasy, and immediately, archetypal images, contextual associations and words spring to mind.

The Empire Entity

One of these, to start off with a major element, is the Empire entity, or at least some kind of vast administrative form of government that forms the nucleus of power co-ordinating all the human worlds in the galaxies. Such a central concentration of control and authority stems from the modern-day perception that strong government always exists in highly sophisticated societies and of course, such a perception is translated into the possible future realm as the Empire. The Empire, being a representative of the pinnacle of human civilization across the universe, is conveyed to be "good" in Foundation. However, the fact that once reaching the peak, it had begun to crumble due to successive political struggles and a stagnating bureaucracy, shows that a "good" thing can become "bad" as the process moves in a cycle.

To correct this movement towards an era of darkness (in our historical memories, we hark back to the European Dark Ages), the Foundation, another representation of civilization and sophistication is established. Asimov does not comment on whether if such a cycle is ceaseless, that it will continue to throw in eras of progress and enlightenment, followed by periods of chaos, then back to an age of knowledge. Certainly, if one looks at history that way, it does show some trend towards this but we can never be sure.

The Star Wars trilogy incorporates this Empire entity although it is regarded as evil. Star Wars plays with the age-old struggle of good and evil, more fantasy elements, than did Foundation. The fact that the Empire is led by a power-hungry, oppressive and sorcerous Emperor, brands his form of government evil, as opposed to the Rebel Alliance in which the heroes star. However, before these dark times (note again, the dark age), there was the sparkling long era of the Republic, the utopic form of government. Cynics here can argue that utopia is only relative. In the Western mind at least, democracy, individual rights and personal freedom come very close to utopia. The Republic epitomizes all these features.

But like the Empire in Foundation, it too goes through a phase of gradual disintegration, whereby ambitious, opportunistic figures ravenous for power leap from the sidelines to finish the kill. All these elements again reflect the history of the Western sphere and how steeped in history much of our fiction is, and in scifi, all the more ironically so. The downfall of a great civilizing force, be it an Empire or a Republic, very much characterizes the fall of the Roman Empire and its division into two spheres, both later to succumb to barbaric hordes.

The rise of feudalism barely managed to maintain civilization in the Middle Ages (like the constant bickering between the Four Kingdoms in Foundation). After several centuries, the great European empires, such as the British, French, Russian and German empires attained their peak of power in the 1800s, when, under the banner of imperialism, they reached out to colonize the world. However, these great empires collapsed in the 20th century after the two World Wars. If seen in scifi (and overly simplistic) terms, then the United States can be equated with the Foundation, for it was able to maintain that high level of civilization after the empires were left broken and devastated. From then to the present day, we have seen the birthing and flourishing of republics that guarantee every human being democratic rights and recognition. This then is our era of republics. What will be the trend for the future?

But enough digression along those lines. In Dune too, we see the Empire entity. Published about a decade after Foundation, it too has similar elements although the underlying themes (appear to me), perhaps more complex, much more intricate. Frank Herbert's messages delve much deeper into political, ecological, philosophical and religious issues. What is fascinating about his work is the complicated interconnections between these four major issues. First to the political field - in Dune, we have an intergalactic Empire ruled by the Padishah Emperor, with different sectors or clusters being governed by dukes, barons and other feudal lords. The narration enters at the point in time when the Padishah dynasty is extremely weak, highly susceptible to being overthrown by the other strong, great Houses.

The Emperor's move to quell the ambitions of its greatest rival, House Atreides, led him to make a huge miscalculation. By exiling Duke Leto and his family to the remote, desert planet, Arrakis, he had literally handed the House with absolute power of the Empire. For, unknown to anyone else, Dune housed the great sandworms that were able to mass-produce spice, an item on which the entire structure of the Empire is based. Control of the spice meant control of power. Here, the power interplay is very similar to that of both Foundation and Star Wars, although with these latter two, one form of government is replaced with another on the diametrically opposed end of the political spectrum. In Dune, we see the continuation of the Empire but only the change of dynasties.

Other major power-brokers that enliven the story are the Bene Gesserit, an organization of women who are able to use telepathic powers to control events; the Trading Guild which has a monopoly on all trade, travel and communication throughout the galaxies (note: similar to the Trade Federation in Phantom Menace); and the Tleilaxu (not too sure if this is the correct name), a body that dealt in mystical technologies and science. The interests of these various factions, additionally with that of the Fremen, often conflict and these clashes of interests add greater complexity to the plot. Foundation also incorporates conflicting agendas, but not to the same extent.

Religious Iconography

All three of these stories contain religion as a greatly influential force in the power structure. The use of religion is a deliberate and calculated move in Hardin's foreign policy to secure the Foundation's power over the other States. However, religious control comprises only a small part of the saga, as it is quickly replaced by economic control. The Jedi Council is a quasi-religious organization featured in Star Wars; in which the Jedi Knights wear the traditional attire of monks. However, contradicting the non-violent doctrine of monks, the Jedi Knights are armed with light sabres, combining religion with the chivalry code. This conveys a Medieval feel in a futuristic setting. The Force (of the Light) and the Dark Path fit into the universal religious ideology that consists of the constant struggle between good and evil. This struggle, conveyed by the use of religion, delivers the action and entertainment that are demanded of film.

However, although religion can be considered a secondary constituent in these two, it is the chief element that foregrounds the story of Dune. Paul Atreides, who later becomes the Prophet, was the resulting product of centuries of noble breeding manipulated by the Bene Gesserit. They had aimed to produce the Kwisatz Haderach, “One who can be many places at once”. He is a human with extraordinary mental powers that would permit him to understand and use higher order dimensions. Before being sent to Arrakis, Paul was already adept in the Bene Gesserit arts, such as the use of the Voice, a form of verbal-mental compulsion. Inhalation of the spice-laden air on Dune triggered his ability to see infinite futures, as well as what positive steps to take to make a particular future happen. It was the spice that would finally take him beyond the thresh-hold of all known power.

The demonstration of his hard persistence and ability to lead won him great respect from the fiercely independent Fremen, who had despised the rule of House Harkonnen. They were a desert people, made harsh by the formidable and often hostile environment. Hence, they were quick to despise non-natives, considering them "soft and weak" unless and until they proved otherwise. However, never had they seen a foreigner like Paul. His unique mental and physical abilities, and his character that held such profound depth and dimension (belying his youth) impressed them so much that they soon regarded him as a near-divinity. He was the Prophet, Muad'Dib, all his words and actions were decreed by heaven. And if he urged them to fight the hated Harkonnens, (who had killed his father), then it was declared jihad, a holy war. In the novel, Paul does not seem to have actively promoted or even encouraged his status of holiness (unlike the ulterior objectives of Hardin's priesthood). Yet, he also did not stop this eventuality, knowing it to be a path leading to a future where he could avenge his father, purge the Harkonnens from existence, seize the sovereignty of Dune and hence the Empire, and also gift the Fremen (whom he soon regarded as his own people) with freedom.

There are some parallels between Paul as the Prophet with the founders of two major religions in today's world. Christianity and Islam can be construed as religions that arose from a desert environment, containing many symbols and icons of the fierce and nomadic desert peoples. Jesus Christ, the Messiah, is the saviour who came to free mankind. His coming was portended by many prophets who spoke as voices from the desert, John the Baptist being the most prominent. This is similar to Paul who was prophesized by the Fremen to come and relieve them from the Harkonnens' yoke. Paul being called the Prophet also reflects the title given to Mohammad. The Fremen themselves could be likened to the Arabs, with the tendency to be easily caught up in mass religious fervour and to declare the holy jihad on all unbelievers. These traits allowed them to forge an Arabic empire spanning from Spain to Arabian Peninsula in the Middle Ages.

The Role of Women

Because both Dune and Foundation were written from the 1950's to the 1960's, the prevalent, strong patriarchal ideology in the context of those decades can be evidenced by how Herbert and Assimov have characterized the women. Foundation was a world dominated by men in all levels of society. Men were the ones who held positions of power - they fought actively and aggressively for power - action and aggression being the masculine stereotypes. The complete marginalization of women is demonstrated by the fact that only two come briefly into the story. One is a servant girl on whom Mallow advertises a new trades good, some sort of ornamental hologram (if I remember correctly). Her reaction of surprise and desire for the good to please her vanity can be deemed today as empty-headed and insubstantial emotions - society's definition of femininity at that time. Women were considered as ornaments and hence were required only to think about beautifying themselves.

The other woman mentioned was the Commdor's wife, a woman in a position of power and perhaps partially dominant in the relationship with her husband. However, this is only because of her high-ranking birth and that their marriage was needed to maintain the Commdor's political alliance with her father. Therefore, it would seem that her status is defined by both her father and her husband, another indictment of a man's world.

Dune contains many more female characters relative to Foundation. However, the Empire still runs in a patriarchal vein where the Emperor, Duke and Baron are the elite men involved in the great game of power. Men are also influential in the other major organizations, such as the feared Sardaukar and the mysterious mentats. Women have some power, as represented by the Bene Gesserit, even though they only have a marginal role to play in the story. The Lady Jessica herself was once a Bene Gesserit and she is in a position to control events as concubine to the Duke, mother of Paul and Reverend Mother of the Fremen tribe. Despite these few exceptions, generally, men are the masters in most realms of the Empire. Cultural factors certainly portray this, such as the ability of a man to take both a wife and concubine, just as Paul does, taking the Princess Irulan as his wife to lend legitimacy to his ascension to the imperial throne and Chani as his concubine, the love of his heart.

The gender roles in Star Wars are more romantically based, being a film produced in the 1970s to 80s. The trilogy stars two heroes, Luke and Han, who rival each other for a princess's hand. Here, there is again the interplay of masculine aggression and feminine passivity. The males are the ones fighting for a woman and the woman waits to be won, even though Leia does contribute to the romantic tension by kissing Luke in the Empire Strikes Back to spite Han. She is also a damsel in distress to be rescued, from Darth Vader in Star Wars and Jabba the Hutt in Return of the Jedi, whilst the men do the rescuing. Likewise, the power-brokers are again men, such as the sinister Darth Vader and the evil Emperor. Besides the princess, most of the other rebel combatants are men.

Such gender roles apparently becomes blurred in The Phantom Menace, made in the 90's, where the elected child-queen Armidala does not need to be rescued and commandeers a counter-offensive to regain Naboo with the alliance of the Gunguns. Still, she is a rare female specimen, surrounded by her bodyguards, the Jedi Knights, the Supreme Chancellor, Senator Pulpatine and her Trade Federation aggressors, all of whom are male. Hence, it can be said that the female characters in the movies have only been created for some love diversion, detracting the serious power struggle played by the males on a higher level.

Conclusion

Well, I'm sure that there are a lot more similarities but these are the most notable ones that I can think of. It can therefore be seen that scifi is based very much on our own history and uses many features of society that prevailed in the writer's context of the times. Detecting and relating these similar elements between the books make them a much more interesting read as well as furthering our contemplation of the issues in our own world.